A branch of philosophy concerned with how an observer may know, not with what he may know thereby. The latter is the concern of ontology. Epistemology seeks to understand the origin, processes and limitations of observation including such operations as drawing distinctions, establishing relations, creating constructs and all consequences for knowledge resulting from communication between an observer and the observed and within a community of observers who may observe each other. The epistemology of a theory considers the observer and the observed as parts of the same system and theory as an emergent property of the interaction process. Epistemology asks not “what is”, or “what can we know” but “how do we come to know”. (Krippendorff)
ONTOLOGY
A branch of philosophy concerned with what really exists as opposed to what appears to exist but does not. The ontology of a theory is the set of real objects or events which the theory ascribes existence to by referring to them without reference to an observer. An ontology is implied in claiming knowledge of what is. (Krippendorff)
CONSTRUCT
A hypothetical variable or system which does not purport to accurately represent or model given observations but has a heuristic or interpretative value concerning them. Constructs may be (1) ideal types as the economist’s concept of rational behavior. Rationality can be formalized, leads to elaborate constructions for the motivation of economic behavior and stimulates empirical inquiries into why actual behavior does not quite conform to it. Constructs may be (2) hypothetical entities, processes or mechanisms which would explain the connections between observed causes and consequences if those entities, processes or mechanisms existed. Human memory is such a construct. It bridges the gap between past experiences and current behavior. Psychological examples are the Freudian id, ego, and super ego for which physiological evidence is principally unavailable. Finally, constructs may be (3) the algorithms capable of generating (see generative) a certain process or product without evidence for whether this rather than another computational procedure is followed in practice. computer simulation of an economy exemplifies the case where the computer algorithm is known to be entirely different from (but in the aggregate (see aggregation) not incompatible with) the reasoning that may go on in the marketplace. Theory in computational linguistics similarly aims to construct mental processes algorithmically. (Krippendorff)
SYSTEM
1) a set of variables selected by an observer. (Ashby, 1960)
2) Usually three distinctions are made: 1. An observed object. 2. A perception of an observed object. This will be different for different observers. 3. A model or representation of a perceived object. A single observer can construct more than one model or representation of a single object. Some people assume that 1. and 2. are the same. This assumption can lead to difficulties in communication. Usually the term “system” is used to refer to either 1. or 2. “Model” usually refers to 3. Ashby used the terms machine,” “system,” and “model” in that order for the three distinctions. (Umpleby)
3) a set or arrangement of entities so related or connected so as to form a unity or organic whole. (Iberall)
4) Any definable set of components. (Maturana and Varela, 1979)
Any portion of the material universe which we choose to separate in thought from the rest of the universe for the purpose of considering and discussing the various changes which may occur within it under various conditions is called a system. (J. W. Gibbs, from his biography by Muriel Rukeyser, page 445)
(1) A set of variables selected by an observer (Ashby) together with the constraints across variables he either discovers, hypothesizes or prefers. Inasmuch as the variables of a system may represent (see representation) the components of a complex machine, an organism or a social institution and a constraint is the logical complement of a relation, an equivalent definition of system is that (2) it represents a set of components together with the relations connecting them to form a whole unity. Unlikee in general systems theory, in cybernetics, a system is an observer’s construct. If it describes, simulates or predicts a portion of his environments it may be regarded as a model of that portion (see reconstructability). The model and the modeled “world” share the same organization but because of their different material realizations they are likely to differ in structure. Cybernetics starts with investigating all possible systems and then inquires why certain systems are not materially realized, or it asks why certain conceivable behaviors are not followed. Systems neither exist independent of an observer nor imply a purpose. (Krippendorff)
INFORMATION
1) that which reduces uncertainty. (Claude Shannon); 2) that which changes us. (Gregory Bateson)
Literally that which forms within, but more adequately: the equivalent of or the capacity of something to perform organizational work, the difference between two forms of organization or between two states of uncertainty before and after a message has been received, but also the degree to which one variable of a system depends on or is constrained by (see constraint) another. E.g., the dna carries genetic information inasmuch as it organizes or controls the orderly growth of a living organism. A message carries information inasmuch as it conveys something not already known. The answer to a question carries information to the extent it reduces the questioner’s uncertainty. A telephone line carries information only when the signals sent correlate with those received. Since information is linked to certain changes, differences or dependencies, it is desirable to refer to theme and distinguish between information stored, information carried, information transmitted, information required, etc. Pure and unqualified information is an unwarranted abstraction. information theory measures the quantities of all of these kinds of information in terms of bits. The larger the uncertainty removed by a message, the stronger the correlation between the input and output of a communication channel, the more detailed particular instructions are the more information is transmitted. (Krippendorff)
VARIABLE
a measurable quantity which at every instant has a definite numerical value. If there is any doubt whether a particular quantity may be admitted as a variable, use the criterion whether it can be represented by a pointer on a dial. Pressure, angle, electric potential, volume, velocity, mass, viscosity, population, national income per capita and time itself, to mention only a few, can all be specified numerically and recorded on dials. Eddington’s statement on the subject is explicit: “The whole subject matter of exact science consists of pointer readings and similar indications. Whatever quantity we say we are ‘observing’, the actual procedure nearly always ends in reading the pointer of some kind of indicator on a graduated scale or its equivalent.” (Ashby, 1960, p. l5)